Leo Tolstoy
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| Leo Tolstoy | |
|---|---|
 Only known color photograph of the novelist, shot at his Yasnaya Polyana estate in 1908 by Prokudin-Gorskii. | |
| Born | September 9, 1828 Yasnaya Polyana, Russia |
| Died | November 20, 1910 (aged 82) Astapovo, Russia |
| Occupation | Novelist |
| Genres | Realist |
| Notable work(s) | War and Peace Anna Karenina |
| Signature |  |
Лeв Никола́евич Толсто́й (help·info), Russian pronunciation: [lʲev nʲɪkɐˈlaɪvʲɪtɕ tɐlˈstoj]; September 9 [O.S. August 28] 1828 – November 20 [O.S. November 7] 1910), was a Russian writer whom many consider to be the world's greatest novelist.[1][2] His literary masterpieces War and Peace and Anna Karenina represent, in their scope, breadth and vivid depiction of 19th-century Russian life and attitudes, the peak of realist fiction.[3]Tolstoy's further talents as essayist, dramatist, and educational reformer made him the most influential member of the aristocratic Tolstoy family. His literal interpretation of the ethical teachings of Jesus, centering on the Sermon on the Mount, caused him in later life to become a fervent Christian anarchist and anarcho-pacifist. His ideas on nonviolent resistance, expressed in such works as The Kingdom of God Is Within You, were to have a profound impact on such pivotal twentieth-century figures as Mahatma Gandhi[4] and Martin Luther King, Jr.[5]
Contents[show] |
[edit] Early life
His conversion from a dissolute and privileged society author to the non-violent and spiritual anarchist of his latter days was brought about by his experience in the army as well as two trips around Europe in 1857 and 1860–61, a period when many liberal-leaning Russian aristocrats escaped the stifling political repression in Russia. Others who followed the same path were Alexander Herzen, Mikhail Bakunin, and Peter Kropotkin. During his 1857 visit, Tolstoy witnessed a public execution in Paris, a traumatic experience that would mark the rest of his life. Writing in a letter to his friend V. P. Botkin: The truth is that the State is a conspiracy designed not only to exploit, but above all to corrupt its citizens ... Henceforth, I shall never serve any government anywhere.
His European trip in 1860–61 shaped both his political and literary transformation when he met Victor Hugo, whose literary talents Tolstoy praised after reading Hugo's newly finished Les Miserables. A comparison of Hugo's novel and Tolstoy's War and Peace shows the influence of the evocation of its battle scenes. Tolstoy's political philosophy was also influenced by a March 1861 visit to French anarchist Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, then living in exile under an assumed name in Brussels. Apart from reviewing Proudhon's forthcoming publication, La Guerre et la Paix ('War and Peace' in French), whose title Tolstoy would borrow for his masterpiece, the two men discussed education, as Tolstoy wrote in his educational notebooks: If I recount this conversation with Proudhon, it is to show that, in my personal experience, he was the only man who understood the significance of education and of the printing press in our time.
Fired by enthusiasm, Tolstoy returned to Yasnaya Polyana and founded thirteen schools for his serfs' children, based on the principles Tolstoy described in his 1862 essay "The School at Yasnaya Polyana".[7] Tolstoy's educational experiments were short-lived due to harassment by the Tsarist secret police. However, as a direct forerunner to A. S. Neill's Summerhill School, the school at Yasnaya Polyana[8] can justifiably be claimed to be the first example of a coherent theory of democratic education.
[edit] Personal life
The marriage was marked from the outset by sexual passion and emotional insensitivity when Tolstoy, on the eve of their marriage, gave her his diaries detailing his extensive sexual past and the fact that one of the serfs on his estate had borne him a son.[9] Even so, their early married life was ostensibly happy and allowed Tolstoy much freedom to compose War and Peace and Anna Karenina with Sonya acting as his secretary, proof-reader and financial manager.[9]
However, their latter life together has been described by A. N. Wilson as one of the unhappiest in literary history. Tolstoy's relationship with his wife deteriorated as his beliefs became increasingly radical. This saw him seeking to reject his inherited and earned wealth, including the renunciation of the copyrights on his earlier works.
[edit] Novels and fictional works
Later critics and novelists continue to bear testament to Tolstoy's art. Virginia Woolf declared him the greatest of all novelists. James Joyce noted that, "He is never dull, never stupid, never tired, never pedantic, never theatrical!". Thomas Mann wrote of Tolstoy's seemingly guileless artistry: "Seldom did art work so much like nature". Such sentiments were shared by the likes of Proust, Faulkner and Nabokov. The latter heaped superlatives upon The Death of Ivan Ilyich and Anna Karenina; he questioned, however, the reputation of War and Peace, and sharply criticized Resurrection and The Kreutzer Sonata.
Tolstoy served as a second lieutenant in an artillery regiment during the Crimean War, recounted in his Sevastapol Sketches. His experiences in battle helped stir his subsequent pacifism and gave him material for realistic depiction of the horrors of war in his later work.[11]
His fiction consistently attempts to convey realistically the Russian society in which he lived.[12]The Cossacks (1863) describes the Cossack life and people through a story of a Russian aristocrat in love with a Cossack girl. Anna Karenina (1877) tells parallel stories of an adulterous woman trapped by the conventions and falsities of society and of a philosophical landowner (much like Tolstoy), who works alongside the peasants in the fields and seeks to reform their lives. Tolstoy not only drew from his own life experiences but also created characters in his own image, such as Pierre Bezukhov and Prince Andrei in War and Peace, Levin in Anna Karenina and to some extent, Prince Nekhlyudov in Resurrection.
War and Peace is generally thought to be one of the greatest novels ever written, remarkable for its dramatic breadth and unity. Its vast canvas includes 580 characters, many historical with others fictional. The story moves from family life to the headquarters of Napoleon, from the court of Alexander I of Russia to the battlefields of Austerlitz and Borodino. Tolstoy's original idea for the novel was to investigate the causes of the Decembrist revolt, to which it refers only in the last chapters, from which can be deduced that Andrei Bolkonski's son will become one of the Decembrists. The novel explores Tolstoy's theory of history, and in particular the insignificance of individuals such as Napoleon and Alexander. Somewhat surprisingly, Tolstoy did not consider War and Peace to be a novel (nor did he consider many of the great Russian fictions written at that time to be novels). This view becomes less surprising if one considers that Tolstoy was a novelist of the realist school who considered the novel to be a framework for the examination of social and political issues in nineteenth-century life.[13]War and Peace (which is to Tolstoy really an epic in prose) therefore did not qualify. Tolstoy thought that Anna Karenina was his first true novel.[14]
After Anna Karenina, Tolstoy concentrated on Christian themes, and his later novels such as The Death of Ivan Ilyich (1886) and What Is to Be Done? develop a radical anarcho-pacifist Christian philosophy which led to his excommunication from the Russian Orthodox Church in 1901.[15] For all the praise showered on Anna Karenina and War and Peace, Tolstoy rejected the two works later in his life as something not as true of reality.[16] Such an argument is supported in The Death of Ivan Ilyich, whose main character continually battles with his family and servants, demanding honesty above the water and food needed to sustain him.
[edit] Tolstoy on Shakespeare
Main article: Tolstoy on Shakespeare
During his life, Tolstoy came to the conclusion that William Shakespeare was a bad dramatist and not a true artist at all. Tolstoy explained his views in a critical essay on Shakespeare written in 1903.Understanding that his conclusions contradict popular opinion, Tolstoy supported his opinion by detailed analysis of King Lear. George Orwell wrote a well-known response to this: Lear, Tolstoy and the Fool.I remember the astonishment I felt when I first read Shakespeare. I expected to receive a powerful aesthetic pleasure, but having read, one after the other, works regarded as his best: "King Lear", "Romeo and Juliet", "Hamlet" and "Macbeth," not only did I feel no delight, but I felt an irresistible repulsion and tedium... Several times I read the dramas and the comedies and historical plays, and I invariably underwent the same feelings: repulsion, weariness, and bewilderment. At the present time, before writing this preface, being desirous once more to test myself, I have, as an old man of seventy-five, again read the whole of Shakespeare, including the historical plays, the "Henrys," "Troilus and Cressida," the "Tempest," "Cymbeline," and I have felt, with even greater force, the same feelings,—this time, however, not of bewilderment, but of firm, indubitable conviction that the unquestionable glory of a great genius which Shakespeare enjoys, and which compels writers of our time to imitate him and readers and spectators to discover in him non-existent merits,—thereby distorting their aesthetic and ethical understanding,—is a great evil, as is every untruth.
Tolstoy on Shakespeare. 1906.
[edit] Religious and political beliefs
After reading Schopenhauer's The World as Will and Representation, Tolstoy gradually became converted to the ascetic morality upheld in that work as the proper spiritual path for the upper classes:
Do you know what this summer has meant for me? Constant raptures over Schopenhauer and a whole series of spiritual delights which I've never experienced before. ... no student has ever studied so much on his course, and learned so much, as I have this summer.In Chapter VI of A Confession, Tolstoy quoted the final paragraph of Schopenhauer's work. It explained how the nothingness that results from complete denial of self is only a relative nothingness, and is not to be feared. The novelist was struck by the description of Christian, Buddhist, and Hindu ascetic renunciation as being the path to holiness. After reading passages such as the following, which abound in Schopenhauer's ethical chapters, the Russian nobleman chose poverty and formal denial of the will:
– Tolstoy's Letter to A.A. Fet, August 30, 1869
But this very necessity of involuntary suffering (by poor people) for eternal salvation is also expressed by that utterance of the Savior (Matthew 19:24): "It is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle, than for a rich man to enter into the kingdom of God." Therefore those who were greatly in earnest about their eternal salvation, chose voluntary poverty when fate had denied this to them and they had been born in wealth. Thus Buddha Sakyamuni was born a prince, but voluntarily took to the mendicant's staff; and Francis of Assisi, the founder of the mendicant orders who, as a youngster at a ball, where the daughters of all the notabilities were sitting together, was asked: "Now Francis, will you not soon make your choice from these beauties?" and who replied: "I have made a far more beautiful choice!" "Whom?" "La poverta (poverty)": whereupon he abandoned every thing shortly afterwards and wandered through the land as a mendicant.Tolstoy's Christian beliefs centered on the Sermon on the Mount, particularly the injunction to turn the other cheek, which he saw as a justification for pacifism, nonviolence and nonresistance. Various versions of "Tolstoy's Bible" have been published, indicating the passages Tolstoy most relied on, specifically, the reported words of Jesus himself.[17] Tolstoy believed being a Christian required him to be a pacifist; the consequences of being a pacifist, and the apparently inevitable waging of war by government, made him a philosophical anarchist.
– Schopenhauer, Parerga and Paralipomena, Vol. II, §170
Tolstoy believed that a true Christian could find lasting happiness by striving for inner self-perfection through following the Great Commandment of loving one's neighbor and God rather than looking outward to the Church or state for guidance.[citation needed] His belief in nonresistance (nonviolence) when faced by conflict is another distinct attribute of his philosophy based on Christ's teachings.[citation needed] By directly influencing Mahatma Gandhi with this idea through his work The Kingdom of God is Within You (full text of English translation available on Wikisource), Tolstoy has had a huge influence on the nonviolent resistance movement to this day. He believed that the aristocracy were a burden on the poor, and that the only solution to how we live together is through anarchism.[citation needed] He also opposed private property[18] and the institution of marriage and valued the ideals of chastity and sexual abstinence (discussed in Father Sergius and his preface to The Kreutzer Sonata), ideals also held by the young Gandhi. Tolstoy's later work derives a passion and verve from the depth of his austere moral views.[19] The sequence of the temptation of Sergius in Father Sergius, for example, is among his later triumphs. Gorky relates how Tolstoy once read this passage before himself and Chekhov and that Tolstoy was moved to tears by the end of the reading. Other later passages of rare power include the crises of self faced by the protagonists of The Death of Ivan Ilyich and Master and Man, where the main character in the former or the reader in the latter is made aware of the foolishness of the protagonists' lives.
Tolstoy had a profound influence on the development of Christian anarchist thought. The Tolstoyans were a small Christian anarchist group formed by Tolstoy's companion, Vladimir Chertkov (1854–1936), to spread Tolstoy's religious teachings. Prince Peter Kropotkin wrote of Tolstoy in the article on anarchism in the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica:
Without naming himself an anarchist, Leo Tolstoy, like his predecessors in the popular religious movements of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, Chojecki, Denk and many others, took the anarchist position as regards the state and property rights, deducing his conclusions from the general spirit of the teachings of Jesus and from the necessary dictates of reason. With all the might of his talent he made (especially in The Kingdom of God is Within You) a powerful criticism of the church, the state and law altogether, and especially of the present property laws. He describes the state as the domination of the wicked ones, supported by brutal force. Robbers, he says, are far less dangerous than a well-organized government. He makes a searching criticism of the prejudices which are current now concerning the benefits conferred upon men by the church, the state and the existing distribution of property, and from the teachings of Jesus he deduces the rule of non-resistance and the absolute condemnation of all wars. His religious arguments are, however, so well combined with arguments borrowed from a dispassionate observation of the present evils, that the anarchist portions of his works appeal to the religious and the non-religious reader alike.During the Boxer Rebellion in China, Tolstoy praised the Boxers. He was harshly critical of the atrocities done by the Russians and other western troops. He accused them of engaging in slaughter when he heard about the lootings, rapes, and murders, in what he saw as Christian brutality. Tolstoy also named the two monarchs most responsible for the atrocities; Nicholas II of Russia and Wilhelm II of Germany.[20][21] Tolstoy also read the works of Chinese thinker and philosopher, Confucius.[22][23]
In hundreds of essays over the last twenty years of his life, Tolstoy reiterated the anarchist critique of the state and recommended books by Kropotkin and Proudhon to his readers, whilst rejecting anarchism's espousal of violent revolutionary means. In the 1900 essay, "On Anarchy", he wrote; "The Anarchists are right in everything; in the negation of the existing order, and in the assertion that, without Authority, there could not be worse violence than that of Authority under existing conditions. They are mistaken only in thinking that Anarchy can be instituted by a revolution. But it will be instituted only by there being more and more people who do not require the protection of governmental power ... There can be only one permanent revolution—a moral one: the regeneration of the inner man." Despite his misgivings about anarchist violence, Tolstoy took risks to circulate the prohibited publications of anarchist thinkers in Russia, and corrected the proofs of Kropotkin's "Words of a Rebel", illegally published in St Petersburg in 1906.[24]
In 1908, a letter Tolstoy wrote to an Indian newspaper entitled A Letter to a Hindu resulted in intense correspondence with Mohandas Gandhi,[citation needed] who was in South Africa at the time and was beginning to become an activist. Reading The Kingdom of God is Within You had convinced Gandhi to abandon violence and espouse nonviolent resistance, a debt Gandhi acknowledged in his autobiography, calling Tolstoy "the greatest apostle of non-violence that the present age has produced". The correspondence between Tolstoy and Gandhi would only last a year, from October 1909 until Tolstoy's death in November 1910, but led Gandhi to give the name, the Tolstoy Colony, to his second ashram in South Africa.[25] Besides non-violent resistance, the two men shared a common belief in the merits of vegetarianism, the subject of several of Tolstoy's essays.[26] Along with his growing idealism, Tolstoy also became a major supporter of the Esperanto movement. Tolstoy was impressed by the pacifist beliefs of the Doukhobors and brought their persecution to the attention of the international community, after they burned their weapons in peaceful protest in 1895. He aided the Doukhobors in migrating to Canada.[27] In 1904, during the Russo-Japanese War, Tolstoy condemned the war and wrote to the Japanese Buddhist priest Soyen Shaku in a failed attempt to make a joint pacifist statement.
Tolstoy was a wealthy member of the Russian nobility. He came to believe that he was undeserving of his inherited wealth, and was renowned among the peasantry for his generosity. He would frequently return to his country estate with vagrants whom he felt needed a helping hand, and would often dispense large sums of money to street beggars while on trips to the city, much to his wife's chagrin.[citation needed]
[edit] Death
The police tried to limit access to his funeral procession, but thousands of peasants lined the streets at his funeral. Still, some peasants were heard to say that, other than knowing that "some nobleman had died," they knew little else about Tolstoy.[30]There is some speculation that Tolstoy was murdered with poison by his wife Sonya. [31]
[edit] In film
A 2009 film about Tolstoy's final year, The Last Station, based on the novel by Jay Parini, was made by director Michael Hoffman with Christopher Plummer as Tolstoy and Helen Mirren as Sofya Tolstoya. Both performers were nominated for Oscars for their roles. There have been other films about the writer, including Departure of a Grand Old Man, made in 1912 just two years after his death, How Fine, How Fresh the Roses Were (1913), and Leo Tolstoy, directed by and starring Sergei Gerasimov in 1984.There is also a famous lost film of Tolstoy made a decade before he died. In 1901, the American travel lecturer Burton Holmes visited Yasnaya Polyana with Albert J. Beveridge, the U.S. senator and historian. As the three men conversed, Holmes filmed Tolstoy with his 60-mm movie camera. Afterwards, Beveridge's advisers succeeded in having the film destroyed, fearing that documentary evidence of a meeting with the Russian author might hurt Beveridge's chances of running for the U.S. presidency. [32]
[edit] Works
Main article: Bibliography of Leo Tolstoy
[edit] Novels and novellas
- Childhood (Детство [Detstvo]; 1852)
- Boyhood (Отрочество [Otrochestvo]; 1854)
- Youth (Юность [Yunost']; 1856)
- Family Happiness (Семейное счастье [Semeynoe schast`e]; novella, 1859)
- The Cossacks (Казаки [Kazaki]; 1863)
- War and Peace (Война и мир [Voyna i mir]; 1865–1869)
- Anna Karenina (Анна Каренина [Anna Karenina]; 1875–77)
- The Death of Ivan Ilyich (Смерть Ивана Ильича [Smert' Ivana Il'icha]; novella, 1887)
- The Kreutzer Sonata (Крейцерова соната [Kreitserova Sonata]; 1889)
- Resurrection (Воскресение [Voskresenie]; 1899)
- Hadji Murat (Хаджи-Мурат [Khadzhi-Murat]; written in 1896–1904, published 1912)
[edit] Short stories
- The Raid (1852)
- Sevastopol Stories (Севастопольские рассказы [Sevastopolskie Rasskazy]; 1855–56)
- Ivan the Fool: A Lost Opportunity (1863)
- Polikushka (1863)
- The Prisoner in the Caucasus (Кавказский Пленник [Kavkazskii Plennik]; 1872)
- Strider: The Story of a Horse (1864, 1886)
- How Much Land Does a Man Need? (Много ли человеку земли нужно [Mnogo li cheloveku zemli nuzhno]; 1886)
- Master and Man (1895)
- Father Sergius (Отец Сергий [Otets Sergii] (1898)
[edit] Plays
- The Power of Darkness (Власть тьмы [Vlast' t'my] (tragedy, 1886)
- The Fruits of Enlightenment (comedy, 1889)
- The Living Corpse (Живой труп [Zhivoi trup] (1900)
[edit] Non-fiction
- A Confession (Исповедь [Ispoved']; 1882)
- What I Believe (also called My Religion) (В чём моя вера [V chem moya vera]; 1884) (What I Believe and My Religion available at Wikisource)
- What Is to Be Done? (1886)
- The Kingdom of God is Within You (Царство Божие внутри вас [Tsarstvo Bozhiye vnutri vas]; 1894) (available at wikisource)
- The Gospel in Brief (1896)
- What Is Art? (1897)
- Letter to the Liberals (1898)
- The Law of Love and the Law of Violence; published in 1940 complete text
[edit] See also
- Anarchism and religion
- Confirmation bias, a psychological phenomenon of which Tolstoy was an early informal observer
[edit] References
- ^ "Is Tolstoy the greatest writer of all time?". The Guardian (London). January 6, 2010. http://www.guardian.co.uk/global/2010/jan/06/leo-tolstoy-greatest-writer.
- ^ http://www.csmonitor.com/Books/Book-Reviews/2010/0504/Sophia-Tolstoy-A-Biography
- ^ Realism, naturalism, and symbolism: modes of thought and expression in Europe, 1848-1914. R.N.Stromberg - 1968
- ^ Martin E. Hellman, Resist Not Evil in World Without Violence (Arun Gandhi ed.), M.K. Gandhi Institute, 1994, retrieved on 14 December 2006
- ^ King, Jr., Martin Luther; Clayborne Carson, et al (2005). The Papers of Martin Luther King, Jr., Volume V: Threshold of a New Decade, January 1959 - December 1960. University of California Press. p. 269. ISBN 0520242394. http://books.google.com/books?id=TU_HozbJSC8C&pg=PA269.
- ^ "Author Data Sheet, Macmillan Readers". Macmillan Publishers Limited. http://www.macmillanreaders.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/ads.leotolstoy.pdf. Retrieved 2010-10-22.
- ^ Tolstoy, Lev N.; Leo Wiener, translator and editor (1904). The School at Yasnaya Polyana - The Complete Works of Count Tolstoy: Pedagogical Articles. Linen-Measurer, Volume IV. Dana Estes & Company. p. 227. http://books.google.com/books?id=4cQnAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA227.
- ^ Wilson, A.N. (2001). Tolstoy. Norton, W. W. & Company, Inc.. p. xxi. ISBN 0393321223. http://books.google.com/books?id=imYmH8myBUsC&pg=PR19.
- ^ a b c Susan Jacoby, "The Wife of the Genius" (April 19, 1981) The New York Times
- ^ Feuer,Kathryn B. Tolstoy and the Genesis of War and Peace, Cornell University Press, 1996, ISBN 0801419026
- ^ Government is Violence: essays on anarchism and pacifism. Leo Tolstoy - 1990 - Phoenix Press
- ^ Tolstoy: the making of a novelist. E Crankshaw - 1974 - Weidenfeld & Nicolson
- ^ Tolstoy and the Development of Realism. G Lukacs. Marxists on Literature: An Anthology, London: Penguin, 1977
- ^ Tolstoy and the Novel. J Bayley - 1967 - Chatto & Windus
- ^ Church and State. L Tolstoy — On Life and Essays on Religion, 1934
- ^ Women in Tolstoy: the ideal and the erotic R.C. Benson - 1973 - University of Illinois Press
- ^ Orwin, Donna T. The Cambridge Companion to Tolstoy. Cambridge University Press, 2002
- ^ I Cannot Be Silent. Leo Tolstoy. Recollections and Essays, 1937.
- ^ by editor on September 8, 2009 (2009-09-08). "Sommers, Aaron (2009) ''Why Leo Tolstoy Wouldn't Supersize It''". Coastlinejournal.com. http://coastlinejournal.com/2009/09/08/why-leo-tolstoy-wouldn%E2%80%99t-super-size-it/. Retrieved 2010-05-16.
- ^ William Henry Chamberlin, Hoover Institution on War, Revolution, and Peace, Ohio State University (1960). The Russian review, Volume 19. Blackwell. p. 115. http://books.google.com/books?id=k1_iAAAAMAAJ&q=he+praised+the+Chinese+for+their+heroic+patience.+When+he+learned+about+the+%22orgy+of+murder,+raping,+and+looting%22+committed+by+the+Western+powers+in+quelling+the+Boxer+rebellion,+he+raged+against+the+brutality+of+the+Christians&dq=he+praised+the+Chinese+for+their+heroic+patience.+When+he+learned+about+the+%22orgy+of+murder,+raping,+and+looting%22+committed+by+the+Western+powers+in+quelling+the+Boxer+rebellion,+he+raged+against+the+brutality+of+the+Christians&hl=en&ei=HFHQTMngK8KqlAeQ_oCiBg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAA. Retrieved 2010-10-31.
- ^ Walter G. Moss (2008). An age of progress?: clashing twentieth-century global forces. Anthem Press. p. 3. ISBN 1843313014. http://books.google.com/books?id=MFtDxmZVB7gC&pg=PA3&dq=tolstoy+boxer+rebellion&hl=en&ei=t1DQTLz9HYX7lwfBofHiBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=tolstoy%20boxer%20rebellion&f=false. Retrieved 2010-10-31.
- ^ Donna Tussing Orwin (2002). The Cambridge companion to Tolstoy. Cambridge University Press. p. 37. ISBN 0521520002. http://books.google.com/books?id=nU2lErM3VgwC&pg=PA37&dq=tolstoy+boxer+rebellion&hl=en&ei=t1DQTLz9HYX7lwfBofHiBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 2010-10-31.
- ^ Derk Bodde (1950). Tolstoy and China. Princeton University Press. p. 25. http://books.google.com/books?ei=t1DQTLz9HYX7lwfBofHiBQ&ct=result&id=UipgAAAAMAAJ&dq=tolstoy+boxer+rebellion&q=tolstoy+boxer+rebellion+confucianism. Retrieved 2010-10-31.
- ^ Peter Kropotkin: from prince to rebel. G Woodcock, I Avakumović.1990.
- ^ Tolstoy and Gandhi, men of peace: a biography. MB Green - 1983 - Basic Books
- ^ Leo Tolstoy, The First Step, Preface to the Russian translation of Howard William’s The Ethics of Diet, 1892.
- ^ Mays, H.G. "Resurrection:Tolstoy and Canada's Doukhobors." The Beaver 79.October/November 1999:38-44
- ^ Leo Tolstoy. EJ Simmons - 1946 - Little, Brown and Company
- ^ The last days of Tolstoy. VG Chertkov. 1922. Heinemann
- ^ Tolstaya, S.A. The Diaries of Sophia Tolstoy, Book Sales, 1987; Chertkov, V. "The Last Days of Leo Tolstoy," http://www.linguadex.com/tolstoy/index.html, translated by Benjamin Scher
- ^ Batuman, Elif, 'The Murder of Leo Tolstoy: A forensic Investigation', in Harpers Magazine, February 2009.
- ^ Wallace, Irving, 'Everybody's Rover Boy', in The Sunday Gentleman. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1965. p. 117.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (Eleventh ed.). Cambridge University Press.[edit] External links
| Find more about Leo Tolstoy on Wikipedia's sister projects: | |
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 | Quotations from Wikiquote |
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[edit] Resources
- Leo Tolstoy Centennial Anniversary 1828-1910. Accessed 2010-10-19
- Tolstoy Image Gallery. Accessed 2010-10-19
- BBC audio file. Radio 4 discussion programme In our time. Accessed 2010-10-19
- Rare film footage of Tolstoy, during his last year of life, from the Russian State Archives. Accessed 2010-10-24
[edit] Leo Tolstoy's biography
- Illustrated Biography online at University of Virginia . Accessed 2010-10-19
- Tolstoy's timeline PBS and synopsis of his life. Accessed 2010-10-19
[edit] Works by Tolstoy
- At Project Gutenberg. Accessed 2010-10-19
- At archive.org
- Works by or about Leo Tolstoy in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
- Links to works online. Accessed 2010-10-19
- Audiobooks of Tolstoy at LibriVox. Accessed 2010-10-19
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Categories: Leo Tolstoy | 1828 births | 1910 deaths | Christian anarchists | Christian communists | Christian vegetarians | Christian writers | Georgists | People excommunicated by the Russian Orthodox Church | Russian Christians | Russian Christian pacifists | Russian Esperantists | Russian anarchists | Russian anti-war activists | Russian essayists | Russian fabulists | Anarcho-pacifists | Russian novelists | Russian short story writers | Russian vegetarians | Tolstoy family
