Allusion
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
An
allusion is a figure of speech that makes a reference to, or representation of, a place, event, literary work,
myth, or work of art, either directly or by implication. M. H. Abrams defined allusion as "a brief reference, explicit or indirect, to a person, place or event, or to another literary work or passage".
[1] It is left to the reader or hearer to make the connection (Fowler); where the connection is detailed in depth by the author, it is preferable to call it "a
reference".
In a freer informal definition, allusion is a passing or casual reference, an incidental mention of something, either directly or by implication. Example: In the stock market he met his Waterloo.
[edit] Scope and history
An allusion is a literary term, though the word also has come to encompass indirect references to any source, including allusions in film or the visual arts. In literature, allusions are used to link concepts that the reader already has knowledge of, with concepts discussed in the story. In the field of film criticism, a film-maker's intentionally unspoken visual reference to another film has come to be called an
homage. It may even be sensed that real events have allusive overtones, when a previous event is inescapably recalled by a current one. "Allusion is bound up with a vital and perennial topic in literary theory, the place of authorial in interpretation", William Irwin observed, in asking "What is an allusion?"
[2] Without the hearer or reader's comprehending the author's intention, an allusion becomes merely a decorative device. Allusive substitutions are as old as English: see
kenning. Allusion is an economical device, a
figure of speech that draws upon the ready stock of ideas, cultural
memes or emotion already associated with a topic in a relatively short space.
Thus, an allusion is understandable only to those with prior knowledge of the covert reference in question, a mark of their cultural literacy.
[edit] Functioning
A sobriquet is an allusion: by metonymy one aspect of a person or other referent is selected to identify it, and it is this shared aspect that makes an allusion evocative. In an allusion to "the city that never sleeps", New York will be recognized. Recognizing the figure in this condensed puzzle-disguise
[3] additionally serves to reinforce cultural solidarity between the maker of the remark and the hearer: their shared familiarity with The Big Apple bonds them.
[4] Some aspect of the referent must be invoked and identified, in order for the tacit association to be made; the allusion is indirect in part because "it depends on something more than mere substitution of a referent"
[5] The allusion depends as well on the author's intent; an industrious reader may search out parallels to a figure of speech or a passage, of which the author under examination was unaware, and offer them as unconscious allusions— coincidences that a critic might not find illuminating. Addressing such issues is an aspect of
hermeneutics.
William Irwin remarks that allusion moves in only one direction: "If A alludes to B, then B does not allude to A. The Bible does not allude to Shakespeare, though Shakespeare may allude to the Bible." Irwin appends a note: "Only a divine author, outside of time, would seem capable of alluding to a later text."
[6] This is the basis for Christian readings of
Old Testament prophecy, which asserts that passages are to be read as allusions to future events.
[edit] Examples of allusion
In
Homer, brief allusions could be made to mythic themes of generations previous to the main narrative because they were already familiar to the epic's hearers: one example is the theme of the
Calydonian boarhunt. In
Hellenistic Alexandria, literary culture and a fixed
literary canon known to readers and hearers, made a densely allusive poetry effective; the poems of
Callimachus offer the best-known examples.
In discussing the richly allusive poetry of
Virgil's
Georgics, R. F. Thomas
[7] distinguished six categories of allusive reference, which are applicable to a wider cultural sphere. These types are
- Casual Reference, "the use of language which recalls a specific antecedent, but only in a general sense" that is relatively unimportant to the new context;
- Single Reference, in which the hearer or reader is intended to "recall the context of the model and apply that context to the new situation"; such a specific single reference in Virgil, according to Thomas, is a means of "making connections or conveying ideas on a level of intense subtlety";
- Self-Reference, where the locus is in the poet's own work;
- Corrective Allusion, where the imitation is clearly in opposition to the original source's intentions;
- Apparent Reference ""which seems clearly to recall a specific model but which on closer inspection frustrates that intention" and
- Multiple Reference or Conflation, which refers in various ways simultaneously to several sources, fusing and transforming the cultural traditions.
Allusion differs from the similar term
intertextuality in that it is an intentional effort on the author's part. The success of an allusion depends in part on at least some of its audience "getting" it. Allusions may be made increasingly obscure, until at last they are understood by the author alone, who thereby retreats into a
private language.
A literature has grown round explorations of the allusions in
Alexander Pope's
The Rape of the Lock or
T. S. Eliot's
The Waste Land
Martin Luther King, Jr., alluded to the
Gettysburg Address in starting his "
I Have a Dream" speech by saying 'Five score years ago..."; his hearers were immediately reminded of
Abraham Lincoln's "Four score and seven years ago", which opened the Gettysburg Address. King's allusion effectively called up parallels in two historic moments.
An allusion may become trite and stale through unthinking overuse, devolving into a mere
cliché, as in some of the following examples:
[edit] 15 minutes of fame
Andy Warhol, a 20th-century American artist most famous for his
pop-art images of
Campbell soup cans and of
Marilyn Monroe, commented about the explosion of media coverage by saying, “In the future, everyone will be world-famous for 15 minutes."
Today, when someone receives a great deal of media attention for something fairly trivial, and he or she is said to be experiencing his or her “
15 minutes of fame”, the allusion is to Andy Warhol's famous saying.
[edit] Catch-22
This phrase comes from a novel by
Joseph Heller.
Catch-22 is set on a
U.S. Army Air Force base in
World War II. “Catch-22” refers to a regulation that states an airman’s request to be relieved from flight duty can only be granted if he is judged to be insane. However, anyone who does not want to fly dangerous missions is obviously sane, thus, there is no way to avoid flying the missions.
Later in the book the old woman in Rome explains that Catch-22 means "They can do whatever they want to do." This refers to the theme of the novel in which the authority figures consistently abuse their powers, leaving the consequences to those under their command.
In common speech, “catch-22” has come to describe any absurd or no-win situation.
[edit] T. S. Eliot and James Joyce
The poetry of
T. S. Eliot is often described as "allusive", because of his habit of referring to names, places or images that may only make sense in the light of prior knowledge. This technique can add to the experience, but for the uninitiated can make Eliot's work seem dense and hard to decipher.
The most densely allusive work in modern English is
Finnegans Wake by
James Joyce. Joseph Campbell, Henry Morton Robinson and Edmund L. Epstein provided
A Skeleton Key to Finnegans Wake (1944) that unlocked some of Joyce's most obscure allusions.
[edit] Bibliography
[edit] References
- ^ Abrams, A Glossary of Literary Terms 1971, s.v. "Allusion".
- ^ Irwin, "What Is an Allusion?" Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 59 (2001)
- ^ The etymology of allusion links its origin in the Latin verb ludere, lusus est "to play with, jest".
- ^ Ted Cohen finds such a "cultivation of intimacy" to be an essential element of many jokes (Cohen, Jokes: Philosophical Thoughts on Joking Matters [University of Chicago Press] 1999:28f) Irwin 2001:note 8 noted the parallel.
- ^ Irwin 2001:288
- ^ Irwin 2001:289 and note 22.
- ^ R. F. Thomas, "Virgil's Georgics and the art of reference" Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 90 (1986) pp 171-98.
