Fraud

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In the broadest sense, a fraud is an intentional deception made for personal gain or to damage another individual; the related adjective is fraudulent.
The specific legal definition varies by legal jurisdiction. Fraud is a crime, and also a civil law violation. Defrauding people or entities of money or valuables is a common purpose of fraud, but there have also been fraudulent "discoveries", e.g. in science, to gain prestige rather than immediate monetary gain.
A hoax also involves deception, but without the intention of gain, or of damaging or depriving the victim; the intention is often humorous.

Contents [show] 1 Types of fraudulent acts 2 Elements of fraud 3 National Fraud Authority 3.1 Action Fraud 4 Notable fraudsters 5 Related 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 External links

[edit] Types of fraudulent acts

Fraud can be committed through many media, including mail, wire, phone, and the Internet (computer crime and Internet fraud). The international dimensions of the web and ease with which users can hide their location, the difficulty of checking identity and legitimacy online, and the simplicity with which crackers can divert browsers to dishonest sites and steal credit card details have all contributed to the very rapid growth of Internet fraud.
Types of criminal fraud include:

• bait and switch
• bankruptcy fraud
• benefit fraud, committing fraud to get government benefits
• counterfeiting of currency, documents or valuable goods
• charlatanism
• confidence tricks such as the 419 fraud and Spanish Prisoner
• creation of false companies or "long firms"
• embezzlement, taking money which one has been entrusted with on behalf of another party
• false advertising
• false billing
• false insurance claims
• forgery of documents or signatures,
• fraud upon the court
• health fraud, for example selling of products known not to be effective, such as quack medicines,
• identity theft
• investment frauds, such as Ponzi schemes and Pyramid schemes
• Moving scam
• religious fraud
• marriage fraud to obtain immigration rights without entitlement
• rigged gambling games such as the shell game
• securities frauds such as pump and dump
• tax fraud, not reporting revenue or illegally avoiding taxes. In some countries, tax fraud is also prosecuted under false billing or tax forgery^[1]

[edit] Elements of fraud

Common law fraud has nine elements:^[2][3]

1. a representation of an existing fact;
2. its materiality;
3. its falsity;
4. the speaker's knowledge of its falsity;
5. the speaker's intent that it shall be acted upon by the plaintiff;
6. plaintiff's ignorance of its falsity;
7. plaintiff's reliance on the truth of the representation;
8. plaintiff's right to rely upon it; and
9. consequent damages suffered by plaintiff.

Most jurisdictions in the United States require that each element be pled with particularity and be proved with clear, cogent, and convincing evidence (very probable evidence) to establish a claim of fraud. The measure of damages in fraud cases is to be computed by the "benefit of bargain" rule, which is the difference between the value of the property had it been as represented, and its actual value. Special damages may be allowed if shown proximately caused by defendant's fraud and the damage amounts are proved with specificity.

Legal liability (Intentional creation of)

Legal liability 

Legal liability is the legal bound obligation to pay debts.^[1]

• In law a person is said to be legally liable when they are financially and legally responsible for something. Legal liability concerns both civil law and criminal law. See Strict liability. Under English law, with the passing of the Theft Act 1978, it is an offense to evade a liability dishonestly. Payment of damages usually resolved the liability. Vicarious liability arises under the common law doctrine of agency – respondeat superior – the responsibility of the superior for the acts of their subordinate.
• In commercial law, limited liability is a form of business ownership in which business owners are legally responsible for no more than the amount that they have contributed to a venture. If for example, a business goes bankrupt an owner with limited liability will not lose unrelated assets such as a personal residence (assuming they do not give personal guarantees). This is the standard model for larger businesses, in which a shareholder will only lose the amount invested (in the form of stock value decreasing). For an explanation see business entity.
• Manufacturer's liability is a legal concept in most countries that reflects the fact that producers have a responsibility not to sell a defective product. See product liability.

Abilify (Phi)(ability)

Double play on words (Phi, Ability), comp. lexapro

 Aripiprazole

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Aripiprazole

Systematic (IUPAC) name
7-{4-[4-(2,3-dichlorophenyl)piperazin-1-yl]butoxy}-3,4-dihydroquinolin-2(1H)-one
Identifiers
CAS number	129722-12-9
ATC code	N05AX12
PubChem	CID 60795
IUPHAR ligand ID	34
DrugBank	APRD00638
ChemSpider	54790
UNII	82VFR53I78
Chemical data
Formula	C23H27Cl2N3O2
Mol. mass	448.385
SMILES	eMolecules & PubChem
Pharmacokinetic data
Bioavailability	87%
Protein binding	>99%
Metabolism	liver
Half-life	75h (active metabolite : 94h)
Excretion	feces and urine
Therapeutic considerations
Licence data	EU EMA:Link, US FDA:link
Pregnancy cat.	C (USA)
Legal status	℞ Prescription only
Routes	oral (via tablets, orodispersable tablets, and oral solution); intramuscular
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Aripiprazole (pronounced /ˌɛərɨˈpɪprəzoʊl/ AIR-i-PIP-rə-zohl; brand names: Abilify, Abilify Discmelt, Aripiprex) is an atypical antipsychotic and antidepressant used in the treatment of schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and clinical depression. It was approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for schizophrenia on November 15, 2002, for acute manic and mixed episodes associated with bipolar disorder on October 1, 2004, as an adjunct for major depressive disorder on November 20, 2007 and to treat irritability in children with autistic disorder in children on 20 November 2009.^[1][2] Aripiprazole was developed by Otsuka in Japan, and in the United States, Otsuka America markets it jointly with Bristol-Myers Squibb.

Contents [show] 1 Indications and usage 1.1 Schizophrenia 1.2 Bipolar disorder 1.3 Major depression (Unipolar depression) 1.4 Autism 1.5 Cocaine dependency 2 Pharmacology 3 Pharmacokinetics 4 Patent status 5 Side effects 6 Overdosage 7 Drug interactions 8 Dosage forms 9 Synthesis 10 References 11 External links

[edit] Indications and usage

[edit] Schizophrenia

Aripiprazole has been approved by the FDA for the treatment of schizophrenia.^[3]

[edit] Bipolar disorder

Aripiprazole has been approved by the FDA for the treatment of acute manic and mixed episodes, in both pediatric patients aged 10–17 and in adults.^[4] Several double-blind, placebo-controlled trials support this use.^[5][6][7][8] In addition, it is often used as maintenance therapy, either on its own or in conjunction with a mood stabilizer such as lithium or valproate. This use is also supported by a handful of studies.^[9][10]haloperidol at reducing manic symptoms,^{[11][unreliable source?]} and is much better tolerated by patients.^[12] Aripiprazole is at least as effective as
Aripiprazole's use as a monotherapy in bipolar depression is more controversial. While a few pilot studies have found some effectiveness^[13][14] (with one finding a reduction in anhedonia symptoms^[15]), two large, double-blind, placebo-controlled studies found no difference between aripiprazole and placebo.^[16] One study reported depression as a side effect of the drug.^[17]

[edit] Major depression (Unipolar depression)

In 2007, aripiprazole was approved by the FDA for the treatment of unipolar depression when used adjunctively with an antidepressant medication.^[18] It has not been FDA-approved for use as monotherapy in unipolar depression.

[edit] Autism

In 2009, the United States FDA approved Abilify to treat irritability in persons with autism.^[19] It was approved on the basis of two studies that showed it reduced aggression towards others, self-injury, quickly changing moods, irritability, and temper tantrums in autistic males and females 6–17 years of age.

[edit] Cocaine dependency

Perhaps owing to its mechanism of action relating to dopamine receptors, there is some evidence to suggest that aripiprazole blocks cocaine-seeking behaviour in animal models without significantly affecting other rewarding behaviours (such as food self-administration). ^[20]

[edit] Pharmacology

D2 Partial Agonist (Ki = 0.34 nM) D3 Antagonist (?)

5-HT1A Partial Agonist (Ki = 0.34 nM) 5-HT2A Antagonist (Ki = 0.8 nM) 5-HT2C Partial Agonist (Ki = 15 nM) 5-HT7 Antagonist (Ki = 39 nM)

SRI (?) Antihistamine (Ki = 61 nM) α-adrenergic antagonist (Ki = 57 nM) mACh receptor antagonist (?)

Aripiprazole's mechanism of action is different from those of the other FDA-approved atypical antipsychoticsclozapine, olanzapine, quetiapine, ziprasidone, and risperidone). Rather than antagonizing the D₂ receptor, aripiprazole acts as a D₂ partial agonist (K_i = 0.34 nM).^[21][22] Aripiprazole is also a partial agonist at the 5-HT_1A receptor (K_i = 1.65 nM), and like the other atypical antipsychotics displays an antagonist profile at the 5-HT_2A receptor (K_i = 0.8 nM).^[23][24] It also antagonizes the 5-HT₇ receptor (K_i = 39 nM) and acts as a partial agonist at the 5-HT_2C receptor (K_i = 15 nM), both with high affinity. The latter action may underlie the minimal weight gain seen in the course of therapy.^[25] Aripiprazole has moderate affinity for histamine (K_i = 61 nM) and α-adrenergic (K_i = 57 nM) receptors and for the serotonin transporter, and no appreciable affinity for cholinergic muscarinic receptors.^[26] (e.g.,
D₂ and D₃ receptor occupancy levels are high, with average levels ranging between ~71% at 2 mg/day to ~96% at 40 mg/day.^[27][28] Most atypical antipsychotics bind preferentially to extrastriatal receptors, but aripiprazole appears to be less preferential in this regard, as binding rates are high throughout the brain.^[29]
Recently, it has been demonstrated that in 5-HT₇ receptor knockout mice, aripiprazole does not reduce immobility time in the forced swim test (FST), and actually increases it.^[30][31] This implicates 5-HT₇amisulpride.^[30][31][32] antagonism as playing a major role in aripiprazole's antidepressant effects, similarly to
Aripiprazole produces 2,3-dichlorophenylpiperazine (DCPP) as a metabolite similarly to how trazodone and nefazodone reduce to 3-chlorophenylpiperazine (mCPP) and niaprazine converts to 4-fluorophenylpiperazine^[33] It is unknown whether DCPP contributes to aripiprazole's pharmacology in any way, but the possibility cannot be excluded. (pFPP).

[edit] Pharmacokinetics

Aripiprazole displays linear kinetics and has an elimination half-life of approximately 75 hours. Steady-state plasma concentrations are achieved in about 14 days. C_max (maximum plasma concentration) is achieved 3–5 hours after oral dosing. Bioavailability of the oral tablets is about 90% and the drug undergoes extensive hepatic metabolization (dehydrogenation, hydroxylation, and N-dealkylation), principally by the enzymes CYP2D6 and CYP3A4. Its only known active metabolite is dehydro-aripiprazole, which typically accumulates to approximately 40% of the aripiprazole concentration. The parenteral drug is excreted only in traces, and its metabolites, active or not, are excreted via feces and urine.^[26] When dosed daily, brain concentrations of aripiprazole will increase for a period of 10–14 days, before reaching stable constant levels. This phenomenon is due to the long half life of aripiprazole, and is responsible for many of the adverse side effects that appear after multiple days of dosing (whereas the first dose normally does not cause these side effects).

[edit] Patent status

Otsuka's US patent on aripiprazole expires on October 20, 2014;^[34] however, due to a pediatric extension, a generic will not become available until at least April 20, 2015.^[4] Barr Laboratories (now Teva Pharmaceuticals) initiated a patent challenge under the Hatch-Waxman Act in March 2007.^[35] As of 14 August 2009, this challenge is still in court. (2009 -08-14)^[update]

[edit] Side effects

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Akathisia^[36], headache, unusual tiredness or weakness, nausea, vomiting, an uncomfortable feeling in the stomach, constipation, light-headedness, insomnia, sleepiness, shaking, and blurred vision.
Uncontrollable twitching or jerking movements, tremors, seizure, and weight gain. Some people may feel dizzy, especially when getting up from a lying or sitting position, or may experience a fast heart rate.
Neuroleptic malignant syndrome (Combination of fever, muscle stiffness, faster breathing, sweating, reduced consciousness, and sudden change in blood pressure and heart rate.)
Aripiprazole also causes sexual dysfunction.
Tardive dyskinesia (As with all antipsychotic medication, patients using aripiprazole may develop the permanent neurological disorder tardive dyskinesia.^[37][38][39])
Stroke (While taking aripiprazole some elderly patients with dementia have suffered from stroke or 'mini' stroke.)
Other elderly patients may experience high blood sugar or the onset or worsening of diabetes.
Allergic reaction (such as swelling in the mouth or throat, itching, rash), increased production of saliva, speech disorder, nervousness, agitation, fainting, reports of abnormal liver test values, inflammation of the pancreas, muscle pain, weakness, stiffness, or cramps.

[edit] Overdosage

Children or adults who ingested acute overdoses have usually manifested central nervous system depression ranging from mild sedation to coma; serum concentrations of aripiprazole and dehydroaripiprazole in these patients were elevated by up to 3-4 fold over normal therapeutic levels, yet no deaths have yet been recorded.^[40]

[edit] Drug interactions

Aripiprazole is a substrate of CYP2D6 and CYP3A4. Coadministration with medications that inhibit (e.g. paroxetine, fluoxetine) or induce (e.g. carbamazepine) these metabolic enzymes are known to increase and decrease, respectively, plasma levels of aripiprazole.^[41] As such, anyone taking Abilify should be aware that their dosage of Abilify may need to be decreased.
Aripiprazole may change the subjective effects of alcohol. One study^[42] found that aripiprazole increased the sedative effect and reduced the sense of euphoria normally associated with alcohol consumption. However, another alcohol study^[43] found that there was no difference in subjective effect between a placebo group and a group taking aripiprazole.

[edit] Dosage forms

• Intramuscular injection, solution: 7.5 mg/mL (1.3 mL)
• Solution, oral: 1 mg/mL (150 mL) [contains propylene glycol, sucrose 400 mg/mL, and fructose 200 mg/mL; orange cream flavor]
• Tablet: 2 mg, 5 mg, 10 mg, 15 mg, 20 mg, 30 mg
• Tablet, orally disintegrating: 10 mg [contains phenylalanine 1.12 mg; creme de vanilla flavor]; 15 mg [contains phenylalanine 1.68 mg; creme de vanilla flavor]

[edit] Synthesis

U.S. Patent 5,006,528

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Lexapro (symbolc misrepresentation)[Lexis-vocabulary, pro-(for, skilled]

Lexapro [Lexis(vocabulary) + Pro]

Escitalopram

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Escitalopram

Systematic (IUPAC) name
(S)-1-[3-(dimethylamino)propyl]-1-(4-fluorophenyl)-1,3-dihydroisobenzofuran-5-carbonitrile
Identifiers
CAS number	128196-01-0
ATC code	N06AB10
PubChem	CID 146570
DrugBank	APRD00683
ChemSpider	129277
UNII	4O4S742ANY
Chemical data
Formula	C20H21FN2O
Mol. mass	324.392 g/mol (414.43 as oxalate)
SMILES	eMolecules & PubChem
Pharmacokinetic data
Bioavailability	80%
Protein binding	~56%
Metabolism	Liver, specifically the enzymes CYP3A4 and CYP2C19
Half-life	27–32 hours
Therapeutic considerations
Pregnancy cat.	C
Legal status	Rx Only (U.S) POM (U.K)
Routes	Oral
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Lexapro tablets

Cipralex brand escitalopram package and tablet sheet

Escitalopram (trade names Lexapro, Cipralex, Seroplex, Lexamil) is an antidepressant of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) class. It is approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment in adults with major depressive disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, social anxiety disorder , or panic disorder. Escitalopram is the S-stereoisomer (enantiomer) of the earlier Lundbeck drug citalopram, hence the name escitalopram. Escitalopram is noted for its high selectivity of serotonin reuptake inhibition and has side effects typical for the SSRI class.

Contents [show] 1 History 2 Use in depression 3 Pharmacology 4 Side effects and drug interactions 5 Discontinuation symptoms 6 Controversy 7 References 8 Cited texts 9 See also 10 External links

[edit] History

Escitalopram was developed in a close cooperation between Lundbeck and Forest Laboratories. Its development was initiated in the summer of 1997, and the resulting new drug application was submitted to the U.S. FDA in March 2001. The short time (3.5 years) it took to develop escitalopram can be attributed to the previous extensive experience of Lundbeck and Forest with citalopram, which has similar pharmacology.^[1]evergreening"^[2] (also called "lifecycle management"^[3])– the long-term strategy pharmaceutical companies use in order to extend the lifetime of a drug, in this case of the citalopram franchise. Escitalopram is an enantiopure compound of the racemic mixture citalopram, used for the same indication, and for that reason it required less investment and less time to develop. Two years after escitalopram's launch, when the patent on citalopram expired, the escitalopram sales successfully made up for the loss. On May 23, 2006, the FDA approved a generic version of escitalopram by Teva.^[4] On July 14 of that year, however, the U.S. District Court of Delaware decided in favor of Lundbeck regarding the patent infringement dispute and ruled the patent on escitalopram valid.^[5] The FDA issued the approval of escitalopram for major depression in August 2002 and for generalized anxiety disorder in December 2003. Escitalopram can be considered an example of "

In 2006 Forest Laboratories was granted an 828 day (2 years and 3 months) extension on its US patent for escitalopram.^[6] This pushed the patent expiry from December 7, 2009 to March 14, 2012.